Punctuation

Punctuation

I. Using Periods

   A. Use a period to end a declarative sentence, a mild imperative or an indirect question.

   B. Use a period to end most abbreviations.

II. Using Question Marks

   A. Use a question mark to end an interrogative sentence.

   B. Use a question mark to end a statement that is intended as a question.

III. Using Exclamation Marks

   A. Use an exclamation mark to end an exclamatory sentence.

   B. Use an exclamation mark after an imperative sentence if the command is forceful and urgent.

   C. Use an exclamation mark after an interjection expressing strong emotion.

IV. Using Commas

   A. Use a comma before the conjunction in a compound sentence.

   B. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases or clauses in a series.

   C. Use commas to separate adjectives of equal rank. Do NOT separate adjectives that must be kept in a specific order.

Example: I am proud of the strong, brave Comanches. (Since strong and brave are of equal rank and could have had a conjunction joining them, a comma would be appropriate.)

Example: Only three rotten apples are left in the bowl. (Since three HAS to come before rotten and not after it, they are not of equal rank and therefore, there is no comma.)

   D. Use a comma after most introductory words, phrases or clauses.

      1. Introductory words: adverbs, participles, interjections not showing strong emotion
      2. Introductory phrases: prepositional, infinitive and participial
      3. Introductory adverb clauses

   E. Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions

      1. Nouns of direct address
      2. Certain adverbs
      3. Common expressions
      4. Contrasting expressions

   F. Use commas with nonessential expressions

      1. Appositives and appositive phrases
      2. Nonessential participial phrases
      3. Nonessential adjective clauses

   G. Other uses of commas

      1. When a date is made up of two or more parts, use a comma after each item except in the case of a month followed by a day.
      2. When a geographical name is made up of two or more parts, use a comma after each item.
      3. Use a comma after each item in an address made up after two or more parts except between the state and the zip code. 
      4. Use a comma in the salutation of an informal letter and in the closing of all letters.
      5. With numbers of more than three digits, insert a comma before every third digit counting from the right.
      6. Use commas to set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.
      7. Use a comma to prevent a sentence from being misunderstood.


V. Using Semi-Colons and Colons

   A. Use a semi-colon to join related independent clauses that are not already joined by the conjunctions and, or, nor, for, but, so or yet.

   B. Use a semi-colon to join independent clauses separate by either a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression.

      1. Conjunctive adverbs: also, besides, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, then, therefore, thus
      2. Transitional expressions: as a result, at this time, consequently, first, for instance, in fact, on the other hand, second, that is

   C. Consider the use of a semi-colon to avoid confusion when independent clauses or items already contain commas.

   D. Use a colon before a list of items following an independent clause. (Never place a colon, however, between a verb and its object or a preposition and its object.)

   E. A colon is used to indicate time with numerals, to end salutations in business letters, and to signal important ideas.

VI. Using Quotation Marks and Underlining

   A. Use quotation marks with a direct quotation but not with indirect quotations.

   B. Titles of major works should be underlined while titles of shorter works should be written using quotation marks.

     Examples of longer works: plays, television shows, novels, magazines, newspapers, sculptures, major forms of transportation (Air Force One)

    Examples of shorter works: one act plays, most poems, short stories, articles in magazines and newspapers, songs, television episodes

VII. Hyphens

   A. Use a hyphen between syllables when dividing a word on a line. (Never leave one letter by itself.)

   B. Use a hyphen with some compound words.

   C. Use a hyphen when a fraction is used as an adjective but not when it's used as a noun.

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